Pollinators

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Worldchanging: A User's Guide for the 21st Century Alex Steffen See book keywords and concepts

Millions of years of coevolution have finely tuned the relations between particular plants and their special pollinators," says biologist Edward O. Wilson (Buchmann and Nabhan 1997). But today, populations of wild pollinators are declining nearly everywhere on earth. Luckily, innovative efforts to restore insect habitats and cultivate pollinator gardens are under way in many countries. More are needed, ew Pollination: The Planet's Oldest Partnership Millennium Ecosystem Assessment ¦¦M At too million years, pollination may be the longest-running business partnership on the planet.

Plant Spirit Healing: A Guide to Working with Plant Consciousness Pam Montgomery See book keywords and concepts

Plants, particularly the flowers of plants, have evolved as the epitome of sexual display, because their sexual parts are inside the flower, and the plant's primary focus is to attract pollinators to their sexual organs. Many plants have both the male (stamen, which produces pollen) and female (pistil, which contains the ovary with eggs, style, and stigma) parts within the same flower, others have two different flowers on one plant, and others have male plants and female plants.

THE HUMAN-PLANT CONNECTION Symbiotic relationships with plants are not only for pollinators; plants and people have a symbiotic relationship that is undeniable. Plants' byproduct of photosynthesis is oxygen, which we need to live, and our by-product of respiration is carbon dioxide, which plants need to live. Granted, plants would still have enough carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to continue to live without us, but we cannot survive without the oxygen provided by plants. We could even say that our close relations with plants are more crucial than any of our relations with animals.

The Desktop Guide to Herbal Medicine: The Ultimate Multidisciplinary Reference to the Amazing Realm of Healing Plants, in a Quick-study, One-stop Guide Brigitte Mars, A.H.G. See book keywords and concepts

Calendula is useful in the garden in that it attracts pollinators and discourages Mexican bean beetles. CALIFORNIA POPPY Botanical Name Eschscboltzia californica, E. mexicana Family Papaveraceae (Poppy Family) Etymology The genus name, Eschscboltzia, was given in honor of J. F. Eschscholtz (1793-1831), an Estonian physician and naturalist who explored the Pacific Coast with Russian explorer Otto von Kotzebue.

The True History of Chocolate Sophie D. Coe and Michael D. Coe See book keywords and concepts

In Walsh's view, the advantage of Hawaii is that these islands have high populations of midges (which, as we have seen in Chapter One, are cacao's main pollinators). "There are five kinds of midges and we have them all," he says. Where one can count at the most five mature pods on a tree in other places, in Hawaii they get 25; and in Hawaii, 1350 trees can be planted per acre, compared with only 200 to 600 elsewhere. The yields are thus fantastic.

The Science of Flavonoids Erich Grotewold See book keywords and concepts

Natural pollinators can prefer or discriminate against petal color, and therefore play an important role in the evolution of petal color; often a petal color is preferred and flowers of that color are visited more often, which enhances seed yield (Clegg and Durbin, 2000; Jones and Riethel, 2001). UV-fluorescent flavonols serve as nectar guides for bees and other insects and enhance the frequency of pollinator visits, indirectly contributing to increased seed yields (Thompson et al, 1972; Sasaki and Takahashi, 2002).

CONCLUSIONS It is clear that flower pigmentation attracts not only pollinators but also many plant biologists including geneticists. Because mutations in flavonoid pigmentation genes are nonlethal and confer easily scorable color phenotypes in stems, flowers, and seeds, various flavonoid pigments, including the anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and phlobaphenes described here, have served as important traits in elucidating genetic and epigenetic phenomena.

The role of anthocyanin pigments as visual signals in angiosperms for attracting pollinators and fruit dispersal agents is well known, but these functions were acquired late in the evolutionary diversification of flavonoids. Less well-known and probably more ancient functions of flavonoids include protection against the detrimental effects of UV radiation; mediation of interactions between pollen and stigma; defense against bacteria, pathogenic fungi, and herbivores; mediation of interactions between plants and mutualistic mycorhizzal fungi; and regulators of hormonal activity.

Evolutionary transitions in flower color frequently accompany or are accompanied by, changes in floral morphology that are believed to enhance the efficiency of interactions with new pollinators. Indeed, this is such a widespread phenomenon that "pollinator syndromes" have been recognized by plant evolutionary biologists for decades (Faegri and van der Pijl, 1966). For example, bee-pollinated flowers typically are blue-purple, have relatively short, broad tubes, broad limbs that serve as landing platforms, small amounts of concentrated nectar, and inserted anthers and stigmas.

If in the future ecological conditions make it advantageous for one of these species to utilize bees rather than hummingbirds as pollinators, prior adaptation and accompanying pathway degeneration may make this nearly impossible. It will be of interest to determine whether the other species listed in Table 7.1 have similarly undergone pathway degeneration, and thus have a reduced evolutionary potential. 7. CONCLUSIONS Several important themes regarding the evolution of flavonoids and their genes emerge from the above considerations.

In the case of flavonoids, rudimentary forms of these compounds may have played early roles as signaling molecules and then evolved functions in processes as diverse as UV protection, growth and development, defense against herbivores and pathogens, and recruitment of pollinators and seed dispersers. The remarkable diversity of form and function of flavonoids in present-day plants has provided a rich foundation for research in areas ranging from genetics and biochemistry to chemical ecology and evolution to human health and nutrition.

Plant Spirit Healing: A Guide to Working with Plant Consciousness Pam Montgomery See book keywords and concepts

Flowers have developed elaborate ways to attract pollinators to them. Some have bright colors, some have strong perfume, while others raise their temperatures. All have nutritious pollen to eat and the greatest treasure of all, nectar. Flowers have ingeniously designed themselves so the nectar lies deep inside, causing bees, insects, and birds to have up-close and intimate contact with them in order to retrieve a precious drop of nectar. Many plants have only one pollinator so that a symbiotic relationship between the two ensures their survival.

Understanding Medicinal Plants: Their Chemistry And Therapeutic Action Bryan Hanson, PhD See book keywords and concepts

Secondary metabolites include, for example, the pigments found in flowers and the volatile molecules used by plants for attracting pollinators. This chapter focuses on examples that have proven medicinally interesting. COMPOUNDS OF PRIMARY METABOLISM Carbohydrates Carbohydrates or sugars have two main functions in plants. First, they act as sources of stored energy. For example, the starch in a potato represents energy stored for new growth. Second, carbohydrates in the form of cellulose provide mechanical strength to plant cells by forming rigid fibers in the cell walls.

Handbook of Medicinal Plants Amarjit S. Basra See book keywords and concepts

In particular, plants that attract pollinators or browsers by producing attractive flowers or fruits to facilitate their reproduction or dispersal often evolve protection to minimize the damage such visitors may cause.4 As a result, for human beings, it is very often the case that foods and drugs come from the same plant.5 It is possible that these attracting functions in part connect these dimensions of selectivity with the ones mentioned earlier, i.e., the visibility which allowed our historical mother to find them a second time.

Worldchanging: A User's Guide for the 21st Century Alex Steffen See book keywords and concepts

But today, populations of wild pollinators are declining nearly everywhere on earth. Luckily, innovative efforts to restore insect habitats and cultivate pollinator gardens are under way in many countries. More are needed, ew Pollination: The Planet's Oldest Partnership Millennium Ecosystem Assessment ¦¦M At too million years, pollination may be the longest-running business partnership on the planet.

Food Plants of the World: An illustrated guide Ben-Erik van Wyk See book keywords and concepts

The fig is actually a fleshy, hollow branch modified to bear numerous small flowers and fruits on the inside, with a small hole at the tip (the ostiole) through which the pollinators (small wasps) can enter. This specialised structure, unique to Ficus, is called a syconium. Wild figs are dioecious, with male syconia and female syconia on separate trees (known as "caprifigs"). Modern cultivars are female only (known as "true figs"). There are several hundreds of cultivars with green, brown, purple or black skins. Origin & history Eastern Mediterranean region.

Worldchanging: A User's Guide for the 21st Century Alex Steffen See book keywords and concepts

Opposite: As pollinators, bees are a great example of the value offered by "nature's services," which we often take for granted. Synthesis Report," economists estimate that it would cost at least $33 trillion per year to substitute human effort for the services that nature provides for free. Of course, many of those services we simply couldn't perform at any price. That's some subsidy! When it comes to nature, we human beings act as though we don't know the value of a buck.

Medical Herbalism: The Science Principles and Practices Of Herbal Medicine David Hoffman, FNIMH, AHG See book keywords and concepts

It has an unpleasant fecal odor that helps attract insect pollinators. CH,0 CH20 Fig. 8.31. Mescaline H3C -o' Fig. 8.32. Muscarine Mescaline Found in the flowering heads of peyote (Lophophora williamsii) and other cacti, including Trichocereus pachanoi, mescaline is entheogenic. Muscarine This alkaloid occurs in the fly agaric mushroom (Amanita muscaria) and some species of Inocybe and Clitocybe. Muscarine is a cholinergic agent that acts at the muscarinic receptors.

Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy Dr. Michael Heinrich, Joanne Barnes, Simon Gibbons and Elizabeth M. Williamson See book keywords and concepts

Showy corollas generally serve to attract pollinators such as insects, arachnids, bats, birds Cortex The outer, separable, portion of the stem or fruit Corymb (adj. corymbose) A raceme of flowers where the pedicels are of different lengths, so that all the flowers are at the same level at the top, the outer flowers opening first Cotyledons The first leaves of a plant, present in the seed, containing nourishment for the seedling and usually different from subsequent leaves Crenate Having rounded teeth Crenulate Diminutive form of crenate Cruciform Cross-shaped, e.g.

It is frequently very showy in order to attract pollinators, but in other instances the flowers are minute and difficult to distinguish from the neighbouring organs or from other flowers. For an inexperienced observer, two characteristics of a flower are particularly noteworthy: the size and the colour. Although these are often good characteristics of a species, others are more important from a botanical point of view. Stamen androecium. Fig. 3.1 Schematic line drawing of a flower.

Medical Herbalism: The Science Principles and Practices Of Herbal Medicine David Hoffman, FNIMH, AHG See book keywords and concepts

They may attract pollinators, help the plant adapt to environmental stressors, or serve as chemical defenses against microorganisms, insects and other predators, or even other plants. The dividing line between primary and secondary metabolism is not absolute. For example, many steroid alcohols (sterols) have an essential structural role in organisms, and must therefore be considered primary metabolites.2 In addition, these two types of metabolism are profoundly interconnected.

In plants, they are believed to help attract pollinators to flowers, defend green tissues from predation by herbivores, and protect against microbial infection. Monoterpenes are volatile, aromatic, colorless, oily substances, although a few (such as camphor) are crystalline. They are not soluble in water, but some contain polar groups that facilitate the formation of emulsions in which the oil disperses in droplets. Classification of Monoterpenes Monoterpenes may be classified either by their structures or according to their functional groups. Table 6.1.

The anthocyanins have a clearly defined function in flowers and fruits in attracting pollinators and as seed dispersal agents. Many of these phenolic molecules are also effective antioxidants and free radical scavengers, especially the flavonoids. As discussed later, they are also the basis of most flower colors. Major Functions of Polyphenols Polyphenols have in common an aromatic benzene ring bearing one or more hydroxyl groups. OH Fig. 7.1.

The Encyclopedia of Edible Plants of North America Francois Couplan, Ph.D. See book keywords and concepts

Their very particular fertilization is linked to specific insects as the usual pollinators are too big to pass through the entrance. They contain sugars, little protein, vitamins A, Bl, B2, C, niacin and minerals. Dried, they are very nutritious, emollient (both internally and externally), pec toral and laxative. The milky juice exuding from a cut in the twigs or in the skin of unripe figs has been used for ages to curdle milk for making cheese. This method is still cur ent in Israel and some Jewish communities. The dried latex is sometimes chewed like gum.

Living Downstream Sandra Steingraber See book keywords and concepts

They include trucking in water to communities where the wells are contaminated, warning the public not to fish in certain lakes and rivers, coping with loss of honeybees and other pollinators, revising and enforcing thousands of tolerance limits for food sold in interstate commerce, cleaning up pesticide spills, monitoring pesticide residues in animal feed, and providing treatment for cancer patients. Most of these costs are ultimately borne by the public, and they amount to an indirect—and apparendy unlimited—agricultural subsidy.

Food Revolution: How your diet can help save your life and our world John Robbins See book keywords and concepts

Meanwhile, most of the insects that had been so carefully selected to serve as pollinators died, dooming the plants on which the bionauts relied for food and for air and water purification. Cockroaches, however, proliferated like crazy. Eventually, the pioneers came out. The failure was not for lack of trying. More than $200 million had been spent on the effort, and the scientists persevered despite extremely severe conditions.

Tropical Nature: Life and Death in the Rain Forests of Central and South America Adrian Forsyth and Kenneth Miyata See book keywords and concepts

Hummingbirds are the most important such pollinators, but there are a number of other colorful birds, such as honeycreepers, in the rain forests of tropical America that also feed heavily on nectar. Birds have excellent color vision, and hummingbird flowers are typically bright red or orange. There is no question that these colors are highly attractive to hummingbirds. If you want to get a close look at the little hermits that dwell in the rain forest understory, all you have to do is wear a bright red T-shirt and sit in a patch of sunlight.

Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human: A Comparison of Naturally Occurring and Synthetic Substances Committee on Comparative Toxicity of Naturally Occurring Carcinogens See book keywords and concepts

The flowers of many plants that require birds or insects as pollinators use a sweet and often aromatic nectar as an attractant. We find that same nectar attractive in perfumes, as space odorants in and around our homes, and as a food in the much more concentrated form of honey. Flower nectars are one of the few examples in which the constituent is used by both humans and the source organisms for a closely similar function. More often, as in spices, plants use a constituent in one role, and humans harvest the same constituent for use in another. Repellents present a different situation.

Tropical Nature: Life and Death in the Rain Forests of Central and South America Adrian Forsyth and Kenneth Miyata See book keywords and concepts

The form, color, and behavior of flowers that depend on the same types of pollinators show many parallels even when the plants are derived from independent evolutionary lines. Flowers are pleasing puzzles for naturalists to contemplate. Detailed observations and careful study are needed in order to determine which animals pollinate a specific plant, but an observant naturalist can infer a great deal about the type of animals that probably pollinate a plant by simply looking at and smelling a flower.

Animal pollinators, insects and otherwise, offer plants the power of long-distance selective gene dispersal necessary in an environment where individual plants may be spread sparsely. Plants must deal with two sets of problems when they set out to exploit an animal. They must entice the animal to visit the flower and pick up the pollen, and they must make sure that the animal visits another plant of the same species after it leaves. These problems are relatively simple to deal with in temperate zone habitats, where plants of the same species may bloom synchronously in high densities.

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