Peter h. Fraser and Harry Massey
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 Worse, the Standard Model cannot explain fundamental aspects of the big bang theory, the predominant theory of the creation of the universe. The Standard Model's fatal flaw, however, may be that it cannot account for the origin of mass. There are different kinds of mass, such as inertial mass (how resistant something is to a change of its direction or speed, which refers to kinetic energy) and gravitational mass (what we commonly think of as something's weight in a gravitational field). |
Alex Vilenkin
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 According to the big bang theory, all the matter that we see around us came out of a hot cosmic fireball some 14 billion years ago. But where did the fireball come from? The theory of inflation has shown that an expanding fireball could arise out of a tiny false-vacuum nugget. But the question still remains: Where did that initial nugget originate? What happened before inflation?
For the most part, cosmologists were in no hurry to tackle this thorny issue. In fact, it appeared that a satisfactory answer could never be given. |
| This is particularly true in cosmology where observers have always had a hard time keeping up with the imagination of the theorists, and the big bang theory is as good an example as any. The papers by Alexander Friedmann remained unnoticed until after his death, and the work of George Gamow was all but ignored for more than a decade. What a contrast to how inflation was received!
Nearly forty papers were published on the new theory in the first year after Guth's original paper. |
| In the standard big bang theory, the distance traveled by light grows proportionally to the age of the universe, while the separation between the regions increases more slowly, because cosmic expansion is being slowed down by gravity. Regions that cannot interact now will be able to do so in the future, when the light-travel distance finally catches up with their separation. But at earlier times the light-travel distance fell even shorter of the mark, so that if the regions cannot interact at the present epoch, they were surely unable to do so in the past. |
| Finally, by the mid-1950s neither Gamow nor Alpher and Herman were actively working on the big bang theory: Gamow was increasingly attracted to biology, where he suggested important insights into the genetic code, while Alpher and Herman left ac-ademia and moved on to careers in private industry. One cannot help thinking that lack of appreciation of their work must have played a role in those decisions. By the mid-1960s, when Penzias and Wilson were taking data from their antenna, the work of the Gamow group was all but forgotten. |
| A firm prediction of the hot big bang theory is that no galaxy in the universe should contain less than 23 percent of helium: helium produced in stars can only increase this primordial abundance. And indeed, no such galaxy has yet been found. The predicted abundance of deuterium is somewhat less than one part in 10,000, and the abundance of lithium is less than one part in a billion. It is quite remarkable that these vastly different amounts are conhydrogen deuterium tritium helium-3 helium-4
Figure 4.1. Simplest atomic nuclei, with protons and neutrons represented by p and n, respectively. |
| Cosmologists used the big bang theory to study how the fireball expanded and cooled, how atomic nuclei formed, and how the grand spirals of galaxies emerged from featureless gas clouds. The results of these studies were in excellent agreement with astronomical observations, so there was little doubt that the theory was on the right track. What it described, however, was only the aftermath of the big bang; the theory said nothing about the bang itself. In Guth's own words, it did not say "what 'banged,' how it 'banged,' or what caused it to 'bang.' |
Marcia Angell, M.D.
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 We eventually settled on what we came to call the big bang theory of Mom's cooking. Sometime in the distant past, we decided, before we were born, our mother had cooked a single stupendous meal, and the family had been living on it ever since. We were only sorry we had missed that meal.
So it is with big pharma. Every now and then, drug companies bring an innovative drug to market, but mainly they turn out a seemingly inexhaustible supply of leftovers— "me-too" drugs that are versions of drugs in the distant past. |
E. D. Hirsch
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 The detection of this radiation played an important role in acceptance of the big bang theory. fa This radiation is sometimes referred to as the "echo" of the Big Bang. cosmic rays Elementary particles, or nuclei of atoms, that continuously "rain" down on the earth from space. Cosmic rays originate in the sun and other stars, and are responsible for part of the background radiation that all living things on earth receive. cosmology The branch of science dealing with the large-scale structure, origins, and development of the universe. (See astronomy and big bang theory. |
James Trefil, Joseph F. Kett, and E. D. Hirsch
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| There is evidence for the big bang theory in the observed red shift of distant galaxies, which indicates that they are moving away from the earth, and in the existence of cosmic microwave background. The big bang theory of the origin of the universe is favored by most astronomers today. fa Scientists do not yet know whether the expansion of the universe will continue or will slow down and reverse at some time in the future.
Big Dipper A constellation in the northern sky. The two stars on the far end of the bowl of the dipper point toward the North Star. |
Alexander Hellemans and Brian Bunch
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 The 1960s saw the first exploration of nearby space with satellites and spaceprobes, as well as the surprises of quasars and pulsars. The big bang theory of creation became dominant as new evidence surfaced. X-ray and neutrino astronomy joined optical and radio approaches. In the 1970s, theoretical physics and astronomy, always close, became even closer. |
James Trefil, Joseph F. Kett, and E. D. Hirsch
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| He also discovered the red shift, thereby laying the foundation for the big bang theory. (See also hubble space telescope.)
Hubble Space Telescope (HST) The first permanent astronomical observatory above the earth's atmosphere, HST was designed to provide much more detailed views of the universe than can be obtained from the ground. Despite the fact that the telescope's mirror was incorrectly tested before launch, the instrument has already produced important new data in astronomy. |
| See astronomy and big bang theory.) covalent bond (koh-vay-luhnt) A chemical bond in which two atoms share some of their valence electrons, thereby creating a force that holds the atoms together. fa Most molecules in living systems are held together by covalent bonds. critical mass In physics, the amount of material that must be present before a chain reaction can sustain itself. fa The term critical mass is often used to refer generally to the minimum amount of something needed to produce a given effect: "The town needs a critical mass of industry to attract more business. |
| The red shift that can be observed in light from distant galaxies suggests that the universe is expanding, and thus supports the big bang theory. reduction Any chemical reaction in which the atoms in a material take on electrons. fa Reduction is the opposite of oxidation. reflection A bouncing of light off a surface. People see themselves in mirrors through reflection. (Compare refraction. |
E. D. Hirsch
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| See astronomy and big bang theory.) covalent bond (koh-VAY-luhnt) A chemical bond in which two atoms share some of their valence electrons, thereby creating a force that holds the atoms together. fa Most molecules in living systems are held together by covalent bonds. critical mass In physics, the amount of material that must be present before a chain reaction can sustain itself. fa The term critical mass is often used to refer generally to the minimum amount of something needed to produce a given effect: "The town needs a critical mass of industry to attract more business. |
James Trefil, Joseph F. Kett, and E. D. Hirsch
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| A theory is more general and better verified than a hypothesis. (See big bang theory, evolution, and relativity. ) thermal equilibrium In physics and chemistry, a condition in which all parts of a system are at the same temperature. thermodynamics The branch of physics devoted to the study of heat and related phenomena. The behavior of heat is governed by the three laws of thermodynamics: 1. The total energy of an isolated system cannot change; this is the law of conservation of energy. 2. Heat will not flow from a cold to a hot object spontaneously (see entropy). 3. |
Alexander Hellemans and Brian Bunch
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| The strongest confirmation of the big bang theory was the discovery in 1965 of the cosmic background radiation by two physicists from Bell Telephone, Arno H. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson. While experimenting with a very sensitive microwave antenna, they discovered a hiss at a wavelength of 7.35 cm (2.89 in.) with an intensity that seemed independent of the orientation of the antenna. The hiss corresponds to radiation emitted by a body at a temperature of 3°K (-454°F), the temperature to which the universe is believed to have cooled as a result of its expansion since the Big Bang. |
E. D. Hirsch
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| The red shift that can be observed in light from distant galaxies suggests that the universe is expanding, and thus supports the big bang theory. reduction Any chemical reaction in which the atoms in a material take on electrons. fa Reduction is the opposite of oxidation. reflection A bouncing of light off a surface. People see themselves in mirrors through reflection. (Compare refraction. |
James Trefil, Joseph F. Kett, and E. D. Hirsch
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| See big bang theory and red shift. exponent (ik-spoh-nuhnt, ek-spoh-nuhnt) A number placed above and to the right of another number to show that it has been raised to a power. For example, 32 indicates that 3 has been raised to a power of 2, or multiplied by itself; 32 is equal to 9. exponential growth (ek-spuh-nen-shuhl) Growth of a system in which the amount being added to the system is proportional to the amount already present: the bigger the system is, the greater the increase. (See geometric progression. |
E. D. Hirsch
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| See big bang theory and red shift. exponent A number placed above and to the right of another number to show that it has been raised to a power. For example, 32 indicates that 3 has been raised to a power of 2, or multiplied by itself; 32 is equal to 9. exponential growth Growth of a system in which the amount being added to the system is proportional to the amount already present: the bigger the system is, the greater the increase. (See geometric progression.) fa Figuratively, "exponential growth" means runaway expansion, such as in population growth or suburban development. |
Gary Zukav
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 Even though the probability of each potentiality can be calcu-
* If the big bang theory is correct, the entire universe is initially correlated. lated, which potentiality actually happens at the moment of decay is a matter of chance.
Bell's theorem implies that which decay reaction occurs at a certain time is not a matter of chance. Like everything else, it is dependent upon something which is happening elsewhere.* In the words of Stapp:
. . . the conversion of potentialities into actualities cannot proceed on the basis of locally available information. |
E. D. Hirsch
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| A theory is more general and better verified than a hypothesis. (See big bang theory, evolution, and relativity. ) thermal equilibrium In physics and chemistry, a condition in which all parts of a system are at the same temperature. thermodynamics The branch of physics devoted to the study of heat and related phenomena. The behavior of heat is governed by the three laws of thermodynamics: i. The total energy of an isolated system cannot change; this is the law of conservation of energy, z. Heat will not flow from a cold to a hot object spontaneously (see entropy). 3. |
Rupert Sheldrake
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 Sheldrake: The interesting thing about the big bang theory is that the minute you have to address the question of the origins of the laws of nature, you're forced to recognize the philosophical assumptions underlying any sort of science. People who think of themselves as hard-nosed mechanists or pragmatists regard metaphysics as a waste of time, a useless speculative activity, whereas supposedly they are practical scientists getting on with the job. |
E. D. Hirsch
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| He also discovered the red shift, thereby laying the foundation for the big bang theory.
Hubble Telescope See space telescope. hydrocarbons Chemical compounds whose main feature is a long chain of carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons are organic molecules. fa Many hydrocarbons are used as fuels. Some examples of hydrocarbon fuels are the components of gasoline; methane, which is the main ingredient of natural gas; and some components of wood. hydrogen The lightest chemical element; its symbol is H. |
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