Dr Ron Roberts
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 It is believed that asthma sufferers have stressed immune responses, which may be helped by gla. Experiments have also shown that gla assists greatly in reducing cholesterol and triglyceride levels, further cleansing the body and thereby aiding asthma. Of course, evening primrose oil is often prescribed for PMT and eczema too.
ROYAL JELLY
This ancient Chinese food of nature is made by bees, as it is the special food fed to the larvae who will grow up to be queens rather than workers. |
Jack Challem
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 Gamma-Linolenic Acid (GLA)
Although gla is an omega-6 fat, it behaves more like an antiinflammatory omega-3 fat, and the two are synergistic. Several studies have found that gla, in dosages of 1.4 to 2.8 grams daily, is particularly helpful in rheumatoid arthritis. Supplement sources include borage, black currant, and evening primrose seed oils. The dosage is far more important than the source.
Antioxidants
As a general rule, antioxidants have antiinflammatory properties. Several studies have found that vitamin E can lower IL-6 and CRP levels by as much as 50 percent. |
Jonny Bowden, Ph.D., C.N.S.
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 Hemp seed oil is about 2 percent GLA—as far as I know, hemp is the only edible seed containing gla.
Hemp Oil Lowers "Bad" Cholesterol and Blood Pressure
So yes, hemp is more dominant in the polyunsaturated omega-6 series of fatty acids, but it is highly beneficial in maintaining cardiovascular health. A comprehensive review paper on the relationship of fats to coronary heart disease by Frank Hu, JoAnn Manson, and Walter Willett from Harvard—the folks who ran the Nurses' Health Study—points out that omega-6s do lower LDL ("bad") cholesterol and also improve insulin sensitivity. |
Michael Friedman, ND
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 Evening Primrose Oil: Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) oil is an excellent source of gla, an essential fatty acid, which, as a precursor to prostaglandins, helps regulate hormone cycles. Research has shown that gla benefits PMS related depression, mood swings, fluid retention, and breast tenderness.
Vitamin E: Vitamin E supplementation has been shown to reduce the breast tenderness of PMS. The supplement 5-HTP raises serotonin levels. Low serotonin is associated with the depression and anxiety of PMS. |
Jonny Bowden, Ph.D., C.N.S.
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 It may also be true that gla works best in combination with B6 and magnesium and is not quite as effective on its own. Because gla is a natural anti-inflammatory, and because many people find it helpful for PMS, I think you should include it in the cocktail.
What about Calcium?
You can take plenty of other things as part of a natural prescription for PMS. First and foremost is calcium and vitamin D. A lot of research sug- O rests that calcium and vitamin D supplements 03
O may reduce the severity of PMS, and there ^ appears to be a link between PMS and low % rn dietary calcium intake. |
Robyn Landis
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 Without gla, we can't make prostaglandins.
Various factors such as too much alcohol, saturated fat, cholesterol, sugar, or processed oils may block the LA-to-GLA pathways. So can diabetes, cancer, infections, and deficiencies of zinc, magnesium, niacin, B6, or vitamin C. In such cases, supplements containing already formed GLA—such as borage oil, evening primrose oil, and black currant oil— may be used. (Borage oil contains three times as much gla as evening primrose oil. Evening primrose oil has been studied extensively, however. |
Earl L. Mindell, RPh, PhD with Virginia Hopkins, MA
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| You only need 1 to 2 mg of gla and 50 to 100 mg of EPA. gla at a dose of 1 to 2 mg and EPA at a dose of 50 to 100 mg daily will do a lot to get your prostaglandin pathways in good working order.
There is an amazing amount of misinformation out there about fats and oils and what they do in the body. If you'd like a clearly written, well-researched book on prostaglandins and essential fatty acids, try Enter the Zone by Barry Sears (Regan Books, 1995) or his more recent book, The Omega-3 Zone (Regan Books, 2002). |
Dr. Gary Null
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 Gammalinolenic acid (GLA). gla is a precursor to prostaglandin-El, a hormonelike substance that helps to regulate neurological and hormonal functions. Prostaglandin-El helps reduce muscle spasms, cramping, sugar cravings, mood swings, depression, anxiety, irritability, acne, and to some extent breast tenderness. It also reduces inflammation and decreases the stickiness of the platelets, which prevents blood clotting. gla is found in evening primrose oil, borage oil, and black currant oil. |
Kaayla T. Daniel, PhD, CCN
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 Even more remarkable, the valuable fatty acid gla (gamma linolenic acid)—a highly usable form of omega-6—may be produced by the Rhizopus strain of bacteria, good news indeed, given the acute shortage of readymade gla in nearly all commonly eaten foods.25 Other sources of gla include borage oil, evening primrose oil and black currant oil, prescribed for a variety of conditions, including cancer, premenstrual syndrome, cystic fibrosis, irritable bowel syndrome and many skin conditions.26-27 Asians eating fermented soy products take in this valuable fatty acid on a regular basis. |
Jonny Bowden, Ph.D., C.N.S.
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| GLA is found in evening primrose oil, black currant seed oil, and borage oil. You can also get it as a supplement called gla.)
If you've got a picky toddler and you're panicked about how to get him to take evening primrose oil, try rubbing the oil on the affected areas at night (see box on page 123 for other oiling suggestions). Symptoms will improve gradually, and you'll very likely see a decreased need to use antihistamines.
Bugs That Make You Well
Now for the bugs. |
Earl L. Mindell, RPh, PhD with Virginia Hopkins, MA
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| You only need 1 to 2 mg of gla and 50 to 100 mg of EPA. gla at a dose of 1 to 2 mg and EPA at a dose of 50 to 100 mg daily will do a lot to get your prostaglandin pathways in good working order.
There is an amazing amount of misinformation out there about fats and oils and what they do in the body. If you'd like a clearly written, well-researched book on prostaglandins and essential fatty acids, try Enter the Zone by Barry Sears (Regan Books, 1995) or his more recent book, The Omega-3 Zone (Regan Books, 2002). |
Ann M. Coulston and Carol J. Boushey
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 ALA, (alpha)-linolenic acid; ARA, arachidonic acid; DGLA, dihomo-y-linolenic acid; DHA, docosahexaenoic acid; DPA, docosa-pentaenoic acid; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; gla, (gamma)-linolenic acid; LA, linoleic acid [85]. Reprinted with permission from the American Society of Nutritional Sciences.
C18:3) is the major plant-derived n-3 fatty acid. The two major marine-derived omega-3 fatty acids are eicosapen-taenoic acid (EPA, C20:5) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6). |
Andrew Pengelly
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 Therapeutically, evening primrose oil and other preparations containing gla are used for atopic eczema, PMS and mastalgia, rheumatoid arthritis, endometriosis and schizophrenia (Horrobin and Manku 1987; Vaddadi 1981; Wright and Burton 1982). gla is also present in oil of borage seed (Borago officinalis) and other plants in the Boraginaceae, as well as species in the blackcurrant family—Saxifragaceae (see Table 8.2).
Table 8.2 Botanical sources of GLAs
Botanical name
Common name
% GLA
Alkanna orientalis
12. |
Gabriel Cousens
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 GLA regulates insulin, and seems to protect against diabetic heart, eye, and kidney damage. gla has an insulin-sparing activity that allows insulin to be more effective. Diets that are relatively high in linoleic acid appear to decrease the progression of microangiopathy in diabetics.137 Excellent sources are evening primrose oil and flax seed oil.
Amino Acids
ACETYL-CARNITINE
Another nutrient, acetyl-carnitine, has been found to improve peripheral nerve function by normalizing nerve conduction. It seems to restore myoinositol levels that are depleted by sorbitol buildup. |
James A. Howenstine, MD
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 Humans are able to make adequate amounts of gla from linoleic acid, a fatty acid found in all edible vegetable oils. This gla is converted into Prostaglandin 1 (PG 1) an important compound, which has an effective anti-inflammatory action and also regulates water loss from the skin and protects the skin from injury.
Persons with atopic dermatitis, eczema and psoriasis often show high levels of linoleic acid but low levels of gla, suggesting failure to convert linoleic acid from the diet into gla. |
Dr. Gary Null
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| It also reduces inflammation and decreases the stickiness of the platelets, which prevents blood clotting. gla is found in evening primrose oil, borage oil, and black currant oil. Borage oil is the most concentrated source of gla, containing 24 percent gla, the equivalent of six capsules of evening primrose oil. One 1,000 mg capsule of borage oil provides a daily dose of 240 mg gla.
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). This oil found in fish and flaxseed oil produces prostaglandin-E3, which helps to alleviate breast tenderness. Flaxseed oil is fragile and should not be used in cooking. |
James A. Howenstine, MD
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| Humans are able to make adequate amounts of gla from linoleic acid, a fatty acid found in all edible vegetable oils. This gla is converted into Prostaglandin 1 (PG 1) an important compound, which has an effective anti-inflammatory action and also regulates water loss from the skin and protects the skin from injury.
Persons with atopic dermatitis, eczema and psoriasis often show high levels of linoleic acid but low levels of gla, suggesting failure to convert linoleic acid from the diet into gla. |
Earl L. Mindell, R.Ph., Ph.D.
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 The biggest culprits are dietary: hydrogenated oils such as margarines, and a diet high in refined carbohydrates and sugar will drive gla oils down the bad pathways. Viral illnesses and excessive adrenal hormones secreted in response to stress can also create more bad prostaglandins and a deficiency of good ones.
There are small amounts of gla oils in oatmeal and trace amounts in many fruits and vegetables. You only need minuscule amounts of these oils to drive your prostaglandin pathways. |
Stephen T. Sinatra, M.D.
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 Here, a protein called matrix gla protein (MGP) protects the tissue from calcium infiltration and the buildup of calcium on artery walls. (In bone tissue, osteocalcin has just the opposite function, allowing calcium to deposit in the bones.)
Studies in the animal model have shown that when rodents are deficient in MGP but otherwise normal at birth, they begin to experience arterial calcification at only one week of age. After three weeks, the arteries are so fragile that the animal soon will die unless they get vitamin K2 in their diet. This correlation is absolutely amazing! |
Healing Children's Attention & Behavior DisordersDr. Abram Hoffer, M.D., FRCP(C)
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| It is clear that gla is not a specific treatment for anything but that it has an enormous importance in the general health of the body. It helps repair biochemical problems which have helped create these pathological diseases. The simplest way of getting gla is by taking evening primrose oil and other gla rich oils. The dose range varies from under 1 gram per day to 10 grams for very serious conditions.
I. Colquhoun and S. |
Gary Null and Amy McDonald
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 GLA)
?2,000 mg fish oil extract (equals 1,000 mg DHA)
?400 mg EFP
600 mg
5-10 mg 1 gram
500-1,000 mg 300 mg
About 1 heaping tablespoon of granules.
Do not use if you have a bipolar disorder. Do not use if you suffer from depression. pregnenolone proanthocyanidins selenium vinpocetine
50 mg
80 mg
200 meg
Individuals with hormone-related cancers should not take pregnenolone.
Naturally occurring in grape seed extract and pine bark extract.
10 mg two times daily with meals
VITAMINS AND NUTRIENTS vitamin C vitamin E
DAILY DOSE
1-3 grams
?400 IU
?200 mg (gamma-tocopherol)
? |
John Heinerman
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 Black currant juice also contains a small amount of gamma linolenic acid
THERAPEUTIC BENEFITS or gla, while the whole berries have even more in them. gla is vital to health because it helps the body to produce an essential hormone-like substance called prostaglandin PGE-1, which controls every organ in the body and which keeps the immune defenses strong. This particular prostaglandin and others like it, serve as biological regulators, controlling the action of the body cells and organs. |
Earl L. Mindell, RPh, PhD with Virginia Hopkins, MA
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| One such fat, gla, can also promote good cardiovascular health and help control inflammation, as long as you're maintaining a diet low in hydrogenated oils and refined carbohydrates. You should be taking 50 to 100 times more EPA than gla. You only need 1 to 2 mg of gla and 50 to 100 mg of EPA. If you're pregnant or nursing, take in at least 300 mg of DHA per day.
Andrew L. Stoll, M.D. |
John Heinerman
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| Black currant juice also contains a small amount of gamma linolenic acid
THERAPEUTIC BENEFITS or gla, while the whole berries have even more in them. gla is vital to health because it helps the body to produce an essential hormone-like substance called prostaglandin PGE-1, which controls every organ in the body and which keeps the immune defenses strong. This particular prostaglandin and others like it, serve as biological regulators, controlling the action of the body cells and organs. |
KC Craichy
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 When gla (found in borage seed oil and evening primrose oil) is combined with EPA, beneficial prostaglandins (short-lived local anti-inflammatory hormones derived from specialized essential fatty acids) are produced.25
Where to Find Omega-3s?
So is it as easy as taking a fish oil supplement? Unfortunately, it's not. |
Tori Hudson, N.D.
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 Animal studies using different ratios of evening primrose oil (high in gamma-linolenic acid or gla), fish oil (rich in EPA and DHA), sunflower oil, and flaxseed oil suggest that supplementation with high doses of evening primrose oil and fish oil is more effective in inhibiting bone loss than is supplementation with linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids.118
The relationship between osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease has several correlations. One is that those individuals with osteoporosis and a subsequent hip fracture have an increased risk of mortality due to strokes. |
| More recently, supplementation with EPA and gla was shown to prevent ectopic calcification. This is better understood by looking at the role of EFAs in membrane health, calcium absorption, calcium excretion, and bone mineralization. It is also worth speculating that since deficits of long chain EFAs are important in cardiovascular disease, the associations between osteoporosis and heart disease may be dependent on a commonality of impaired EFA metabolism and poor sources of dietary fat. |
Thomson Healthcare, Inc.
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 The beneficial effects of topical Borage oil in the treatment of dermatitis may be due to the uptake of gla by the stratum corneum with an increased water binding capacity of the stratum corneum and fluidization of the lipids resulting in a smooth surface (Nissen et al, 1995).
Immunomodulatory Effects: Orally administered Borage oil demonstrated a dose-dependent inhibition of calcium iono-phore-induced polymorphonuclear neutrophil generation of proinflammatory leukotriene B4 in vitro (Ziboh & Fletcher, 1992). |
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